Note: For most of the Mughal era, Punjab was a region rather than a state or independent entity. Until the reign of Shah Alam II, the term "Punjab" refers to the geographical region, not an organised state or entity.

The Mughal Empire officially began in 1526 with its first emperor, Babur. He was a descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan. After losing the throne of Fergana - a kingdom in Uzbekistan, he ventured into South Asia, strategically conquering Delhi and Agra after the First Battle of Panipat to establish a new dynasty. While Punjab played a crucial role in his campaigns, acting as a gateway between Central Asia and Delhi, his primary focus was not on the region.

Over the following decades, expansion and consolidation efforts continued. His son and successor, Humayun (r. 1530–1540, 1555–1556), struggled to maintain control, facing challenges from local rulers attempting to reclaim their territories. He was temporarily overthrown by Sher Shah Suri - founder of the Suri empire, but later reclaimed the throne before his death in 1556.

Humayun’s son, Akbar (r. 1556–1605), is widely regarded as one of the greatest Mughal emperors. His legacy stems from both the groundwork laid by his father and his own strategic governance. Akbar abolished the Jizya tax - a tax on non-muslims, centralised administration, and expanded trade. He formally incorporated Punjab into the empire, facing minimal resistance compared to the revolts of later centuries.

Jahangir (r. 1605–1627), Akbar’s eldest son, is remembered for his patronage of the arts and commitment to justice. He commissioned major developments in Lahore but faced internal strife, including a rebellion in 1606, led by Prince Khusrau - his son. This rebellion led to the execution of Guru Arjan Dev - the fifth Sikh Guru, intensifying tensions between the Mughal administration and Punjabi population. While Jahangir personally recorded his justification for the execution, some historians debate whether he was solely responsible or if it was influenced by court factions.

Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), Jahangir’s third son, is best known for constructing the Taj Mahal. However, his reign also saw increasing Mughal control over Punjab, which strengthened imperial authority in the region but also sowed the seeds of immense future resistance.

Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) remains a controversial figure in both Punjabi and Mughal history. On one hand, he was rigid with his policies and aimed to bring the empire to its greatest heights. On the other, he failed to consider the impact of such strict governance, which led to large-scale revolts, particularly in Punjab. During his reign, he reimposed the Jizya tax, alienating non-Muslim communities and frustrating those who had accepted Islam but rejected his rigid orthodoxy. Additionally, Guru Tegh Bahadur - the ninth Sikh Guru was executed, further intensifying Sikh and Punjabi resistance in a region of religious diversity.

Bahadur Shah I (r. 1707–1712), also known as Shah Alam I, inherited the throne after a major succession struggle. By this time, the empire's grip on Punjab was weakening. His attempts to reconcile with regional powers were overshadowed by the alleged assassination of Guru Gobind Singh - the tenth and final Sikh Guru, in 1708. However, this remains a subject of debate. Despite launching campaigns in Punjab, he failed to reassert control.

The Sayyid Brothers, influential noblemen who rose to prominence after Aurangzeb’s death, played a pivotal role in Mughal politics. Sayyid Abdullah Khan and Sayyid Hussain Ali controlled the succession of emperors between 1713 and 1720, manipulating court affairs to maintain power. Their dominance weakened the empire as internal rivalries intensified, and their policies alienated many factions within the Mughal court. In 1720, they were overthrown and assassinated by opponents at court, further destabilising the empire.

Jahandar Shah (r. 1712–1713), the first of their five puppet emperors, ruled for only 11 months. His reign was marked by indulgence, while unrest in Punjab escalated. During this period, Banda Singh Bahadur’s resistance gained momentum.

Farrukhsiyar (r. 1713–1719), another puppet emperor, attempted to enforce strict policies reminiscent of Aurangzeb. However, he faced fierce opposition from the Punjabi-Sikh resistance - which had grown immensely since the time of his predecessors. The resistance was particularly strong following Banda Singh Bahadur’s capture of Sirhind. Farrukhsiyar was later deposed and executed by the Sayyid Brothers in 1719.

Note: Following Guru Gobind Singh’s death in 1708, Banda Singh Bahadur led the Punjabi-Sikh resistance against Mughal imperial authority. Some attribute this revolt to years of exploitation under Mughal rule, while others see it as retribution for the Guru’s assassination and the execution of his young sons - Zoravar Singh, and Fateh Singh. Banda Singh Bahadur achieved significant victories, including the capture of Sirhind - which was significant because the governor of Sirhind had ordered the executions of Guru Gobind’s children. Despite this, Banda Singh was eventually defeated and executed in 1716 during Emperor Farrukhsiyar’s reign. Following Banda Singh Bahadur’s execution, the Punjabi Confederacy was established (officially in 1716), however the confederacy gained power and momentum in the latter 18th century as the Mughal hold on Punjab weakened and they filled the power vacuum.

The next two emperors were also puppets to the Sayyids. Rafi-ud-Darajat (r. 1719) and Shah Jahan II (r. 1719), who ruled briefly (3 months each) and had little impact on Punjab.

Muhammad Shah (r. 1719–1748) was appointed the throne with the help of the Sayyid brothers, making him the final puppet emperor, as they were overthrown during his reign. He attempted to stabilise the empire after the Sayyid Brothers’ downfall. However, internal decline continued and in 1739, Nadir Shah - A Persian ruler, sacked Delhi exposing the Mughal Empire’s weakness. His forces looted Punjab, further fuelling local resentment. By this time, the Punjabi Confederacy had become a formidable power.

Ahmad Shah Bahadur (r. 1748–1754) inherited an empire in decline. His reliance on corrupt advisors weakened his administration. Additionally, Ahmad Shah Durrani/ Abdali - founder of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, launched multiple invasions into Punjab. Though still officially a Mughal province, Punjab was largely controlled by the Punjabi Confederacy, which resisted the invasions. The Mughal Empire’s declining power left it unable to offer aid or military support to Punjabi forces during these invasions, further intensifying resistance in the region.

Alamgir II (r. 1754–1759) ruled at a time when many regions were already semi-independent. His reliance on Imad-ul-Mulk - his vizier, who was aligned with the British East India Company, further destabilised the empire. By this time, the Punjabi Confederacy controlled major cities of Punjab.

Shah Jahan III’s (r. 1759–1760) ten-month rule saw the empire reduced to Delhi, with no influence over Punjab.

Shah Alam II (r. 1760–1806, 1806–1808) faced exile due to internal threats and later gave up Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the British East India Company after the Battle of Buxar in 1764. However, this cession primarily granted the British revenue collection rights rather than full sovereignty. During his reign, the Bhangi Misl (1765) and later Ranjit Singh (1799) officially captured Lahore, marking the rise of the Sikh Empire and the Mughal Empire’s irrelevance in Punjab.

Note: Ranjit Singh’s capture of Lahore in 1799 marked the beginning of the Sikh Empire, unifying the Punjab region into a sovereign kingdom. Under his rule, Punjab became a distinct political entity, though its territory was larger and different from the modern Punjab.

Akbar Shah II (r. 1806–1837), the penultimate Mughal emperor, was a mere figurehead under British rule. In 1835, Mughal coinage stopped being issued in his name. Meanwhile, the Sikh Empire controlled Punjab, further diminishing Mughal influence.

The final Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II (r. 1837–1857), was more invested in poetry and philosophy than governance. During the Revolt of 1857, he became a symbolic leader, as revolutionaries aligned themselves with him in their dissatisfaction with British leadership. However, this ultimately marked the formal end of the Mughal Empire. Zafar was exiled to Burma, and his death in 1862 signified the empire’s official conclusion.

The detailed articles in this series will further explore the empire’s power shifts and the resistance that shaped Punjab’s history.